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Future
of Children
> Children, Families, and Foster Care: Analysis and Recommendations:
Endnotes
(7 of 7)
1 Peter D. Hart Research Associates and Public Opinion Strategies.
Results of a national survey of voter attitudes towards foster care. Washington,
DC: Pew Commission on Children in Foster Care, May 7, 2003.
2 Horowitz, S. Judge didn't see report before moving Brianna. Washington
Post. January 15, 2000, at A1.
3 St. Petersburg Times. Newspaper finds children state declared missing.
August 12, 2002, at 4B.
4 Polgreen, L., and Worth, R.F. New Jersey couple held in abuse; one son,
19, weighed 45 pounds. New York Times. October 27, 2003, at A1.
5 About 60% of child maltreatment victims were found to be neglected by
their primary caregiver. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Administration on Children, Youth and Families. Child maltreatment 2001.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2003. Available online
at http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/publications/cm01/outcover.htm.
6 See note 5, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
7 Therapeutic foster care is a family-based treatment program in which
specially trained foster families provide care for children with serious
emotional and behavioral problems.
8 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children
and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children's
Bureau. AFCARS, Report #8. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,
March 2003. Available online at http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/ publications/afcars/report8.htm.
9 Reasonable efforts are not required (but not prohibited) when a court
determines that a parent has committed murder, voluntary manslaughter,
or felony assault that results in serious bodily injury to his or her
child; a parent has subjected the child to aggravated circumstances as
defined in state law; or the parental rights to a child's sibling have
been involuntarily terminated.
10 See note 8, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. These children
are sometimes referred to as “legal orphans.”
11 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children
and Families. Child welfare outcomes 2000: Annual report to Congress.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2003; see also the article
by Wulczyn in this journal issue.
12 See note 8, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; and the article
by Wulczyn.
13 The reasons for this decline are complex and largely unknown. One speculation
is that the reduction may be a result of the combined effect of rules
in the Adoption and Safe Families Act (ASFA) that shortened the amount
of time birth parents have to reunify with their children and provided
incentives to states for adoptions.
14 In some jurisdictions, court-appointed special advocates are referred
to as volunteer guardian ad litums.
15 National CASA Association. National Court Appointed Special Advocate
Association annual report 2002. Seattle, WA: NCASAA, 2003. Available online
at http://casanet.org/download/ncasa_ publications/02-ncasaa-annual-report.pdf.
16 Nelson, K. The Child Welfare Response to Youth Violence and Homelessness
in The Nineteenth Century. Child Welfare (January/ February 1995):56–70;
and Schene, P. Past, present, and future roles of child protective services.
The Future of Children (Spring 1998) 8(1):23–38.
17 See note 8, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
18 National Center for Youth Law. Foster care reform litigation docket
2000. Oakland, CA: NCYL, 2000. Available online at http://www.youthlaw.org/fcrldocket2000.pdf.
19 Malm, K., Bess, R., Leos-Urbel, J., et al. Running to keep in place:
The continuing evolution of our nation's child welfare system. Occasional
paper no. 54. Washington, DC: Urban Institute, October 2001.
20 In New Jersey, for example, the state child welfare agency had been
under the leadership of three different directors in three years. See
note 19, Malm, et al.
21 See the article by Stukes Chipungu and Bent-Goodley in this journal
issue.
22 See the article by Jones Harden in this journal issue.
23 High-risk parent care is defined as children living with single parents
with incomes 200% below the federal poverty level. See Kortenkamp, K.,
and Ehrle, J. Well-being of children involved with the child welfare system:
A national overview. Washington, DC: Urban Institute, January 2002, p.
2.
24 See note 23, Kortenkamp and Ehrle, p. 3.
25 See note 23, Kortenkamp and Ehrle, p. 3.
26 U.S. General Accounting Office. Foster care: Health needs of many children
are unknown and unmet. HEHS-95-114. Washington, DC: GAO, May 26, 1995.
Available online at http://www.gao.gov/archive/1995/he95114.pdf.
27 See, for example, Magura, S., and Moses, B.S. Outcome measurement
in child welfare. Child Welfare (1980) 59:595–606.
28 See note 27, Magura and Moses.
29 U.S. General Accounting Office. Most states are developing statewide
information systems, but the reliability of child welfare data could be
improved. GAO-03-809. Washington, DC: GAO, July 2003.
30 Many states have experienced significant delays due to difficulties
securing matching funds, staffing shortages, and internal disagreements
on design features. Importantly, 41 states reported that the lack of clear,
documented guidelines from the Department of Health and Human Services
was a major factor in the delays. See note 29, U.S. General Accounting
Office.
31 Altshuler, S.J., and Gleeson, J.P. Completing the evaluation triangle
for the next century: Measuring child well-being in family foster care.
Child Welfare (January/February 1999) 78(1):125–47.
32 See the article by Stukes Chipungu and Bent-Goodley.
33 Dicker, S., Gordon, E., and Knitzer, J. Improving the odds for the
healthy development of young children in foster care. Promoting the Emotional
Well-Being of Children and Families Policy Paper No. 2. New York: National
Center for Children in Poverty, January 2002.
34 Wulczyn, F., and Hislop, K.B. Babies in foster care. Zero to Three
(April/May 2002) 22(5):14–15.
35 See note 34, Wulczyn and Hislop.
36 Perry, B.D. Childhood experience and the expressions of genetic potential:
What childhood neglect tells us about nature and nurture. Brain and Mind
(2002) 3:79–100.
37 See note 33, Dicker, et al.
38 See the article by Jones Harden.
39 Gomby, D.S., Larner, M.B., Stevenson, C.S., et al. Long-term outcomes
of early childhood programs: Analysis and recommendations. The Future
of Children (1995) 5(3):6–24.
40 Reynolds, A., and Robertson, D. “School-based early intervention
and later child maltreatment in the Chicago Longitudinal Study. Child
Development (January–February 2003) 74(1):3–26. Available
online at http://www.waisman.wisc.edu/cls/ CD7412003.PDF. The sample for
this study consisted of 1,408 children who participated in the Chicago
Child–Parent Centers program in 1985–1986. The comparison
group consisted of 550 children who participated in other preschool programs
in the Chicago area.
41 High-poverty neighborhoods are those in which 60% of the children live
in low-income families. See note 40, Reynolds and Robertson.
42 The program is associated with the public school system, so most preschool
teachers have B.A. degrees. Further, there may be selection bias in the
study, as the families who choose to participate may be more motivated
and thus more likely to succeed than those who did not participate.
43 See note 8, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
44 See note 11, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, pp. 13,
18.
45 Wertheimer, R. Youth who ‘age out' of foster care: Troubled
lives, troubling prospects. Publication #2002-59. Washington, DC: Child
Trends, December 2002. Available online at http://www.childtrends.org/PDF/FosterCareRB.pdf.
46 See the commentary by Pérez in this journal issue.
47 See the article by Massinga and Pecora in this journal issue.
48 See the article by Massinga and Pecora in this journal issue.
49 Foster Care Independence Act, Public Law 106-169, 113 U.S. Statutes
at Large 1822 (1999), 42 U.S.C.A. § 677 note (2002).
50 See the article by Massinga and Pecora.
51 The term children of color refers to all nonwhite children.
52 See note 8, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
53 See note 11, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
54 Zambrana, R.E., and Capello, D. Promoting Latino child and family
welfare: Strategies for strengthening the child welfare system. Children
and Youth Services Review 25(10):755–80.
55 See the article by Stukes Chipungu and Bent-Goodley.
56 Roberts, D. Shattered bonds: The color of child welfare. New York:
Basic Civitas Books, 2001.
57 Overall, about 41% of the children in foster care come from single-
parent households, but this rate may be higher for children of color.
See note 23, Kortenkamp and Ehrle. One small study in California found
that nearly 80% of the African American foster children in their sample
lived in singleparent households. See Harris, M.S., and Courtney, M.E.
The interaction of race, ethnicity, and family structure with respect
to the timing of family reunification. Children and Youth Services Review
(May–June 2003) 25(5/6):409–29. Another study found that families
of color involved with the child welfare system were more likely than
white families to be headed by young single parents with either caregiver
or child disabilities. See Courtney, M., Barth, R.P., Berrick, J.D., et
al. Race and child welfare services: Past research and future directions.
Child Welfare (March–April 1996) 75(2):99–136.
58 Chasnoff, I.J., Landress, H.J., and Barrett, M.E. The prevalence of
illicit-drug or alcohol use during pregnancy and discrepancies in mandatory
reporting in Pinellas County, Florida. New England Journal of Medicine
(April 26, 1990) 322:1202–06. The difference in reporting rates
may reflect differences in the type of drugs women abused: White women
were more likely to test positive for marijuana, whereas African American
women were more likely to test positive for alcohol and cocaine. However,
the authors also note that physician beliefs about the prevalence of
substance abuse among poor, urban minorities may lead them to test and
report African American women more often than white women.
59 See note 36, Perry.
60 Littell, J., and Schuerman, J. A synthesis of research on family preservation
and family reunification programs. Chicago: Westat, James Bell Associates,
and the Chapin Hall Center for Children at the University of Chicago,
May 1995.
61 A description of the Family to Family model is available online at
http://www.aecf.org/initiatives/familytofamily/.
62 National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges. Empowering families
in child protection cases: An implementation evaluation of Hawaii's Ohana
Conferencing Program. Technical Assistance Bulletin (April 2003) 7(2).
63 See note 8, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
64 Barbell, K., and Freundlich, M. Foster care today. Washington, DC:
Casey Family Programs, 2001.
65 National Commission on Family Foster Care. A blueprint for fostering
infants, children and youth in the 1990s. Washington, DC: Child Welfare
League of America, 1991.
66 Lee, J.H., and Holland, T.P. Evaluating the effectiveness of foster
parent training. Research on Social Work Practice (1991) 1:162–175.
67 See the article by Stukes Chipungu and Bent-Goodley.
68 See note 65, National Commission on Family Foster Care.
69 Kusserow, R. Using relatives for foster care. OEI-06-90-02390. Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Inspector
General, 1992.
70 Urban Institute. Children in kinship care. Washington, DC: Urban Institute,
October 9, 2003. Available online at http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/900661.pdf.
71 Andrews Scarcella, C., Ehrle, J., and Geen, R. Identifying and addressing
the needs of children in grandparent care. Washington, DC: Urban Institute,
August 31, 2003. Available online at http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/310842_B-55.pdf.
72 See note 71, Andrews Scarcella, et al.
73 Additionally, 7% aged out of the system, 3% were transferred to another
system (typically the juvenile justice system), and 2% ran away.
74 See note 11, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
75 See note 11, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
76 See note 11, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
77 Taussig, H.N., Clyman, R.B., and Landsverk, J. Children who return
home from foster care: A 6-year prospective study of behavioral health
outcomes in adolescence. Pediatrics (July 2001) 108(1):E10.
78 The initial experiences with abuse and neglect are known to have a
negative affect on child well-being. Evidence suggests that the foster
care experience can also be traumatic and lead to poor outcomes. Reunifying
a child with his or her birth family can be a tenuous and fragile process
that can influence a child's development. Further, children reunified
with their birth parents may return to high-risk neighborhoods with underperforming
schools and other weak community institutions and supports, factors that
also affect child outcomes.
79 Research indicates that children who are adopted when they are older
experience higher disruption rates than younger children.
80 See the article by Testa in this journal issue.
81 Festinger, T. After adoption: A study of placement stability and parents'
service needs. New York: Shirley M. Ehrenkranz School of Social Work,
New York University, 1996. Available online at http://childrensrights.org/Policy/policy_resources_adoption_
afteradoption.htm.
82 See note 81, Festinger; and Freundlich, M., and Wright, L. Postpermanency
services. Washington, DC: Casey Family Programs, 2003.
83 Schorr, A.L. The bleak prospect for public child welfare. Social Service
Review (March 2000) 74(1):124–36.
84 Little Hoover Commission. Still in our hands: A review of efforts to
reform foster care in California. Oakland: State of California, February,
2003.
85 Bess, R. The cost of protecting vulnerable children. Washington, DC:
Urban Institute, November 2002. Available online at http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/310586_
FactPerspectives.pdf.
86 Other federal funding streams, such as Social Services Block Grants
(17%), Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) (15%), Medicaid
(10%), and Title IV-B (5%), provided approximately 47% of federal foster
care dollars in that same year. The remaining 4% comes from the Social
Security Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program and Survivors Benefits
and a compilation of other federal funding streams. (Numbers do not add
up to 100 because of rounding.) See Bess, R., Andrews, C., Jantz, A.,
et al. The cost of protecting vulnerable children III: What factors affect
states' fiscal decisions? Assessing the New Federalism, Occasional paper
no. 61. Washington DC: Urban Institute, December 18, 2002.
87 They may receive limited federal reimbursement from other federal funding
streams.
88 Geen, R. Improving child welfare agency performance through fiscal
reforms: An assessment of recent proposals. Paper prepared for the Joint
Center on Poverty Research Conference, Child Welfare Services Research
and Its Policy Implications. Washington, DC. March 20–23, 2003.
89 Some states have worked out voluntary payment agreements with tribes
that provide foster care services, and tribal children in state public
systems may be eligible if they meet income requirements.
90 See note 88, Geen.
91 See note 86, Bess, et al.
92 Billings, P., Moore, T.D., and McDonald, T.P. What do we know about
the relationship between public welfare and child welfare? Children and
Youth Services Review (2003) 25(8):633–50.
93 See note 88, Geen.
94 Similar to waivers granted in the years before federal welfare reform,
these waivers required that any changes to policy and practice must be
cost-neutral and that states evaluate the effects of their initiatives.
A description of the waiver initiative can be found at http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/initiatives/
cwwaiver.htm.
95 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children
and Families, Children's Bureau. Summary of IV-E child welfare waiver
demonstration. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, February
2003. Available online at http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/initiatives/cwwaiver/
summary.htm.
96 The commission is also examining the role of the courts in child welfare
and will issue recommendations on how to improve the courts in this capacity.
97 See note 92, Billings, et al.
98 See note 92, Billings, et al.
99 See note 92, Billings, et al.
100 Andrews, C., Bess, R., Jantz, A., et al. Collaboration between state
welfare and child welfare agencies. Washington, DC: Urban Institute: August
31, 2002. Available online at http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/310563_A-54.pdf
101 Brown, R.A., Coates, A., and Debicki, A. Children's services tracking:
Understanding multiple service use of at risk children through technology.
Children and Youth Services Review (March 2003) 25(3):225–49.
102 See note 92, Billings, et al.
103 Sellers, J. Restructuring in Oregon. Policy and practice. Washington,
DC: American Public Human Services Association, June 2002.
104 The reason for entry into foster care is often subsumed under the
catch-all category of “child neglect.”
105 See the articles by Allen and Bissell, and Stukes Chipungu and Bent-Goodley
in this journal issue.
106 U.S. General Accounting Office. Foster care: Recent legislation helps
states focus on finding permanent homes for children but longstanding
barriers remain. GAO-02-585. Washington, DC: GAO, June 2002.
107 For example, The Child Protection and Alcohol Drug Partnership Act,
which was introduced in the 106th, 107th, and 108th Congresses, would
provide funds to state child protection and alcohol and drug treatment
agencies to jointly address the needs of children and families that come
to the attention of the child welfare system. The proposed legislation
would allow funds to be used to increase comprehensive treatment approaches,
improve substance abuse screening and assessment, expand aftercare, and
enhance training.
108 A description of the Delaware waiver project can be found at http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/initiatives/cwwaiver/
de1.htm.
109 See note 56, Roberts.
110 See the article by Stukes Chipungu and Bent-Goodley.
111 Knipe, J., and Warran, J. Foster youth share their ideas. Washington,
DC: Youth Work Resources, California Youth Connection, Child Welfare League
of America, 1999.
112 Publication Development Committee, Victims of Child Abuse Project.
Resource guidelines: Improving court practice in child abuse and neglect
cases. Reno, NV: National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges,
January 1995, pp. 18–19. Available online at http://www.pppncjfcj.org/pdf/Resource_guide/resguide.pdf.
113 U.S. General Accounting Office. HHS could play a greater role in helping
child welfare agencies recruit and retain staff. GAO- 03-357. Washington,
DC: GAO, March 2003. Available online at http://i-documentsolutions.net/news/GAO-3-357.pdf.
114 See note 113, U.S. General Accounting Office.
115 See note 113, U.S. General Accounting Office.
116 See note 113, U.S. General Accounting Office.
117 See note 113, U.S. General Accounting Office.
118 For example, in South Carolina the salary of public child welfare
caseworkers was nearly double that of private workers. See note 113, U.S.
General Accounting Office. Many child welfare social workers leave the
field to pursue opportunities in other human services agencies that are
less stressful and higher paying. Also, see note 19, Malm, et al.
119 Both California and Kentucky report that these partnerships have been
beneficial in building a qualified pool of child welfare workers. See
note 113, U.S. General Accounting Office.
120 See note 19, Malm, et al.
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